Introduction, Units, Acronyms and References
An introduction to oil and gas production
Håvard Devold
© 2006 ABB ATPA Oil and Gas
PAGE 1
PREFACE
This handbook is has been compiled to give readers with an interested in the oil and
gas production industry an overview of the main processes and equipment. When I
started to search for a suitable introduction to be used for new engineers, I
discovered that much of this equipment is described in standards, equipment manuals
and project documentation. But little material was found to quickly give the reader
an overview of the entire upstream area, while still preserving enough detail to let the
engineer get an appreciation of the main characteristics and design issues.,
This book is by no means a comprehensive description on the detailed design of any
part of this process, and many details have been omitted in the interest of overview. I
have included some comments on the control issues, since that is part of my own
background. For the same reason, the description will be somewhat biased toward
the offshore installations.
The material has been compiled form various online sources as well as ABB and
customer documents. I am thankful to my colleagues in the industry for providing
valuable input, in particular Erik Solbu of Norsk Hydro for the Njord process and
valuable comments. I have included many photos to give the reader an impression
what typical facilities or equipment look like. Non-ABB photo source given below
picture other pictures and illustrations are ABB.
Edition 1.3 Oslo, June 2006
Håvard Devold
©2006 ABB ATPA Oil and Gas
Except as otherwise indicated, all materials, including but not limited to design, text, graphics,
other files, and the selection and arrangement thereof, are the copyright property of ABB, ALL
RIGHTS RESERVED. You may electronically copy and print hard-copy of this document only for
non-commercial personal use, or non-commercial use within the organization that employs you,
provided that the materials are not modified and all copyright or proprietary notices are retained.
Use of photos and graphics and references form other sources in no way promotes or endorses
these products and services and is for illustration only.
PAGE 2
CONTENTS
1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 4
2 Process overview .............................................................................................. 6
2.1 Facilities .................................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Onshore.......................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Offshore ......................................................................................... 9
2.2 Main Process Sections........................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Wellheads .................................................................................... 12
2.2.2 Manifolds/gathering..................................................................... 12
2.2.3 Separation .................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 Gas compression.......................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Metering, storage and export ....................................................... 15
2.3 Utility systems....................................................................................... 16
3 Reservoir and Wellheads ................................................................................ 17
3.1 Crude oil and Natural gas...................................................................... 17
3.1.1 Crude Oil ..................................................................................... 17
3.1.2 Natural Gas .................................................................................. 18
3.1.3 Condensates ................................................................................. 19
3.2 The Reservoir ........................................................................................ 19
3.3 Exploration and Drilling........................................................................ 21
3.4 The Well................................................................................................ 24
3.4.1 Well Casing ................................................................................. 25
3.4.2 Completion .................................................................................. 26
3.5 Wellhead ............................................................................................... 27
3.5.1 Subsea wells ................................................................................ 29
3.5.2 Injection....................................................................................... 30
3.6 Artificial Lift ......................................................................................... 30
3.6.1 Rod Pumps................................................................................... 31
3.6.2 Downhole Pumps......................................................................... 31
3.6.3 Gas Lift ........................................................................................ 32
3.6.4 Plunger Lift.................................................................................. 33
3.7 Well workover, intervention and stimulation. ....................................... 33
3.8 Unconventional sources of oil and gas .................................................. 35
3.8.1 Extra Heavy Crude ...................................................................... 35
3.8.2 Tar sands...................................................................................... 36
3.8.3 Oil Shale ...................................................................................... 36
3.8.4 Coal, Coal Gasification and Liquefaction.................................... 37
3.8.5 Methane Hydrates ........................................................................ 37
3.8.6 Biofuels........................................................................................ 38
3.8.7 Hydrogen ..................................................................................... 38
4 The Oil and Gas Process................................................................................. 40
4.1 Manifolds and Gathering....................................................................... 42
PAGE 3
4.1.1 Pipelines, and Risers .................................................................... 42
4.1.2 Production, test and injection manifolds...................................... 42
4.2 Separation.............................................................................................. 43
4.2.1 Test Separators and Well test....................................................... 43
4.2.2 Production separators................................................................... 43
4.2.3 Second stage separator................................................................. 45
4.2.4 Third stage separator.................................................................... 45
4.2.5 Coalescer ..................................................................................... 46
4.2.6 Electrostatic Desalter ................................................................... 46
4.2.7 Water treatment ........................................................................... 46
4.3 Gas treatment and Compression............................................................ 48
4.3.1 Heat exchangers........................................................................... 48
4.3.2 Scrubbers and reboilers................................................................ 49
4.3.3 Compressor anti surge and performance...................................... 50
4.3.4 Gas Treatment.............................................................................. 54
4.4 Oil and Gas Storage, Metering and Export ........................................... 54
4.4.1 Fiscal Metering ............................................................................ 54
4.4.2 Storage ......................................................................................... 57
4.4.3 Marine Loading ........................................................................... 58
4.4.4 Pipeline terminal.......................................................................... 58
5 Utility systems ................................................................................................ 59
5.1 Control and Safety Systems .................................................................. 59
5.1.1 Process Control............................................................................ 59
5.1.2 Emergency Shutdown and Process Shutdown ............................. 62
5.1.3 Control and Safety configuration................................................. 63
5.1.4 Fire and Gas Systems................................................................... 65
5.1.5 Telemetry / SCADA .................................................................... 66
5.1.6 Condition Monitoring and Maintenance Support ........................ 67
5.1.7 Production Information Management Systems (PIMS) ............... 68
5.1.8 Training Simulators ..................................................................... 69
5.2 Power generation and distribution......................................................... 69
5.3 Flare and Atmospheric Ventilation ....................................................... 71
5.4 Instrument air ........................................................................................ 72
5.5 HVAC ................................................................................................... 72
5.6 Water Systems....................................................................................... 73
5.6.1 Potable Water............................................................................... 73
5.6.2 Seawater....................................................................................... 73
5.6.3 Ballast Water ............................................................................... 73
5.7 Chemicals and Additives....................................................................... 74
5.8 Telecom................................................................................................. 77
6 Units................................................................................................................ 78
7 Acronyms........................................................................................................ 80
8 References....................................................................................................... 82
PAGE 4
1 Introduction
Oil has been used for lighting purposes for many thousand years. In areas where oil
is found in shallow reservoirs, seeps of crude oil or gas may naturally develop, and
some oil could simply be collected from seepage or tar ponds. Historically, we know
of tales of eternal fires where oil and gas seeps would ignite and burn. One example
1000 B.C. is the site where the famous oracle of Delphi would be built, and 500 B.C.
Chinese were using natural gas to boil water.
But it was not until 1859 that "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first successful oil
well, for the sole purpose of finding oil.
The Drake Well was located in the middle of quiet farm country in north-western
Pennsylvania, and began the international search for and industrial use of petroleum.
Photo: Drake Well Museum Collection, Titusville, PA
These wells were shallow by modern standards, often less than 50 meters, but could
give quite large production. In the picture from the Tarr Farm, Oil Creek Valley, the
Phillips well on the right was flowing initially at 4000 barrels per day in October
1861, and the Woodford well on the left came in at 1500 barrels per day in July,
PAGE 5
1862. The oil was collected in the wooden tank in the foreground. Note the many
different sized barrels in the background. At this time, barrel size was not yet
standardized, which made terms like "Oil is selling at $5 per barrel" very confusing
(today a barrel is 159 liters, see units at the back). But even in those days,
overproduction was an issue to be avoided. When the “Empire well” was completed
in September 1861, it gave 3,000 barrels per day, flooding the market, and the price
of oil plummeted to 10 cents a barrel.
Soon, oil had replaced most other fuels for mobile use. The automobile industry
developed at the end of the 19th century, and quickly adopted the fuel. Gasoline
engines were essential for designing successful aircraft. Ships driven by oil could
move up to twice as fast as their coal fired counterparts, a vital military advantage.
Gas was burned off or left in the ground.
Despite attempts at gas transportation as far back as 1821, it was not until after the
World War II that welding techniques, pipe rolling, and metallurgical advances
allowed for the construction of reliable long distance pipelines, resulting in a natural
gas industry boom. At the same time the petrochemical industry with its new plastic
materials quickly increased production. Even now gas production is gaining market
share as LNG provides an economical way of transporting the gas from even the
remotest sites.
With oil prices of 50 dollars per barrel or more, even more difficult to access sources
become economically interesting. Such sources include tar sands in Venezuela and
Canada as well as oil shales. Synthetic diesel (syndiesel) from natural gas and
biological sources (biodiesel, ethanol) have also become commercially viable. These
sources may eventually more than triple the potential reserves of hydrocabon fuels.
PAGE 78
6 Units
Some common units used in the oil and gas industry. I have listed a representative
selection of US and metric units since both are used in different parts of the oil
industry. The non standard factors differ slightly between different sources.
API American Petroleum
Institute crude grade
API = (141.5 / Specific gravity ) + 131,5
Spec gravity = 141.5/(API + 131,5) kg/l
Bl Barrel (of oil) 1 Bl = 42 Gallons
1 Bl = 159 liters
1 Bl equiv. to 5487 scf = 147 scm gas
Bpd Barrel per day 1 Bpd 50 tons/tonnes per year
BTU British Thermal Unit 1 BTU = 0,293 Wh = 1,055 kJ
CO2 CO2 emissions from
hydrocarbons
Typical values
1,625 Ton CO2 per Ton gas (for CH4)
1,84 Ton CO2 per Ton Crude Oil
0,94 kg per scm gas
Cal Calorie 1 Cal = 4,187 J (Joules)
MMscf Million Standard Cubic
Feet
1 MMscf = 23.8 TOE 174 barrels
psi Pounds Per Square
Inch
1 psi = 6,9 kPa = 0,069 atm
Scf Standard Cubic Feet
(of gas) Defined by
energy not a normalized
volume
1 scf = 1000 BTU = 252 kcal
= 293 Wh = 1,055 MJ
0.0268 scm
Scm Standard Cubic metre
(of gas, also Ncm)
Defined by energy
content
1 Scm = 39 MJ = 10.8 kWh
1 Scm 37,33 Scf (not a volume conv.)
1 Scm 1,122 kg
TOE Tons oil equivalent
Range 6.6 - 8 barrels at
API range 8 - 52
1 TOE = 1 kilograms = 1 Ton (metric) oil
1 TOE = 1 Tonne oil (US)
1 TOE 7,33 Barrels (at 33 API)
1 TOE 42,9 GJ =11,9 MWh
1 TOE 40,6 MMBTU
1 TOE 1,51 ton of coal
1 TOE 0,79 ton LNG
1 TOE 1125 Scm = 42000 Scf
kWh kiloWatthour
= 1000 Joules * 3600 S
1 kWh = 3,6 MJ = 860 kcal = 3413 BTU
PAGE 79
Product specific gravity, API grades
Product Liters Per Ton
(metric)
API
Grade
Specific
Gravity
(kg/m3)
Barrels per
Ton
At 60°F
LPG 1835 10 1000 6,29
Jet A-1 1254 18 934 6,73
Gasoline
premium/super
1353 25 904 6,98
Gasoline regular 1418 30 876 7,19
Kerosene 1273 33 860 7,33
Gas Oil 1177 36 845 7,46
Diesel Fuel 1159 39 830 7,60
Fuel oil 80 CST 1065 42 816 7,73
Fuel oil 180 CST 1050 50 780 8,06
Fuel oil 230 CST 1047
Fuel oil 280 CST 1044
Bitumen 979
PAGE 80
7 Acronyms
Acronym Description
AC Alternating Current
AGA American Gas Association
API American Petroleum Institute
CCR Central Control Room
CMS Condition Monitoring Systems
CSP Collector and Separation Platform
DC Direct Current
DYNPOS Dynamic positioning (of rigs and ships)
E&P Exploration and Production
EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery
ESD Emergency ShutDown system
ESP Electric Submerged Pump
F&G Fire & Gas System
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading
GB(S) Gravity Base Structure
GOR Gas Oil Ratio from the well
GOSP Gas Oil Separation Plant
GTP Gas Treatment Platform
HP High Pressure
HPU Hydraulic Power Unit (topside utility for subsea)
HVAC Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning
IR Infra Red
ISO International Standards Organization
K-Mass Flow Coriolis type Mass Flow meter
LNG Liquid Natural Gas (e.g. Metane)
LP Low Pressure
LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas (e.g. Propane)
MCC Motor Control Centre
MTBF Mean Time Between Failure
NGL Natural Gas Liquids, Condensates see also LPG
PCP Progressive Cavity Pump
PD-Meter Positive Displacement meter
PGP Power Generation Platform
PID Proportional Integral Derivate control algorithm
PIMS Production Information Management System
PoC Pimp of controller (for articifial lift)
POSMOR Position mooring for a floating facility
PSD Process Shutdown System
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle (for subsea workover)
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
PAGE 81
SAS Safety and Automation System
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
TIP Tie-In Platform
TLP Tension Leg Platform
UMS Unmanned Machinery Space classification (marine =
E0)
URF Umbilicals, Risers and Flowlines
UV Ultra Violet
WHP Well Head Platform
PAGE 82
8 References
Web on line sources and references that has been used in compiling this document:
· Schlumberger oilfield glossary:
http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/default.cfm
· Norsk Hydro, Njord Main Process and Oil Process Description.
http://www.hydro.com/en/our_business/oil_energy/production/oil_gas_nor
way/njord.html
· Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
· Oklahoma State, Marginal Well Commission, Pumper’s Manual
http://www.marginalwells.com/MWC/pumper_manual.htm
· Natural Gas Supply Association. See Natural Gas - From Wellhead to
Burner Tip
http://www.naturalgas.org/index.asp
· US geological survey: http://www.usgs.gov/
· US departmen of energy: http://www.doe.gov/
· NORSOK standards, Standards Norway (SN),
http://www.standard.no/imaker.exe?id=244
· UK Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA)
http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/storyofoil/index.htm
· National Biodiesel Board http://www.biodiesel.org/
· PBS – Public Broadcasting Service - Extreme Oil
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/extremeoil/index.html
· http://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/history/pennsylvania/pennsylvania.html
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